Mackie sums up the foreign policy of Henry VII this way.
"Whatever were his ethics in the matter, his abundant common sense must have shown him that a king seated uneasily upon a newly acquired and uncertain throne would be wise to keep out of war, and his movements in then field of diplomacy prove that he tried to maintain good relations with all neighbors." [p. 81]Quickly, in October 1485 (Bosworth was a scant two months before), a truce was set with France and then extended the following year. Friendly overtures were sent to Scotland, too, and a commercial treaty with Brittany was settled by July 1486. An understanding with Maximillian of the Habsburg line, as a rather distant 'ruler' of the Netherlands, was worked over until agreed on six months later.
As a guide here, as Mackie notes, Henry still had many internal enemies and could not let treasonous characters use foreign breeding grounds to conspire against him. He also had, in some degree, to portray 'the high pretensions of his predecesors', in order to exert power. But a balance had to be struck as well with promoting economic welfare. Henry wanted to be on the side of the merchants and bankers who could support him in these projects. [p.82]
In support of these hopes, titles, marriages, and even personality traits could entwine relations, but these almost always confused things rather than settled them. Henry's new bride Elizabeth was the daughter of the last King Edward IV and could not be replaced, so a new marriage for him was unthinkable, and they still had no children. Maximilian King of the Romans agreed (March 1486) to marry Anne of Brittany, and also agreed his son Phillip should marry Anne's sister when they came of age. But this diplomacy was disprupted as the regency of France advanced into Brittany by force of arms. Called la guerre folle, the Mad War cemented Brittany as a French controlled land but it also took a couple years of fighting before Breton forces gave out. [p. 86]
Brittany had traditionally been part of Britain, it lay just across the straits, extended across the length of southern England and guarded the all-important English Channel. Henry was loathe to lose this necessary guardian along his flank. But the French Captain La Trémoille kept pressing west through 1487-8 scoring wins time after time.
Some grew impatient. The brother of the new queen's mother (also the old queen's brother) Lord Scales, Edward Woodville was one who gathered as many men as he could and sailed for the coast. He landed at St Malo and supporteed the Bretons in May 1488. But then when forces were arranged and battle was joined at St Aubin du Cormier in July, the losses were heavy on both sides. But even with a multi-national force of mercenaries aiding them, and the capture of the Duke of Orleans, the French won the day in a big way. [p.87] On August 20 the poor duke of Brittany in the treaty of Sable agreed to be considered a vasssal of France and handed over four towns to his new sovereign, the dauphin, Charles VIII. But it was not technically an English loss since Henry had not sanctioned the efforts of Lord Scales.
Henry continued to send embassies, and to seek peace, as his men were in Paris negotiating even as Scales marched in Brittany. Henry even extended his peace treaty with France that same July for another year. But as he sought peace he also talked with King Ferdinand in Aragon. This was a relationship that both wanted but for different reasons. In early 1489, Henry made new treaties with Spain, Brittany and Maximilian. Each of these are worth looking at individually as they show what little Henry had to work with and what he could accomplish on this stage. A number of sieges and additional negotiations between the combatants increased the pressure for some other outcome throughout 1489. [pp. 97-101]
Henry in this time also came to agreements with Portugal, Denmark, Florence and Venice but as the years went on he still could not come to lasting, stable agreements with Max and France. By September 1490, he had made another truce with the 'inconstant' Maximilian and against France. Christmas came that year and Henry could celebrate an alliance with Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan. Early the next year, Maximilian agreed to marry Anne of Brittany. [p. 103] But Maximilian was also at war with Ladislas Jagiello of Bohemia for the crown of Hungary and had been inconstant at best in all these wranglings. With little left to turn to or run on, late in the following year, Anne had had enough of war and negotiations, and she accepted to marry the dauphin Charles of France. [p.105]
But as civil war was breaking out in the Netherlands and Maximilian tied up with that and in the East, Henry decided it was time to force the issue of Brittany. Preparations were made all through this time and, much of 1492 in England was spent in preparing troops and stores and ships. [p. 108] Henry had to move forward. Speeches were made in England before Parliament, and thousands of soldiers with their supplies were then readied and ferried from Briton across the strait. The English troops were in France for nine days, there were some skirmishes but a large balttle was not struck. Instead, the Treaty of Etaples was signed. Henry and his English forces would leave, France would keep Brittany and Anne, but agree to also pay Henry 475,000 gold crowns, and pay that at the rate of 50,000 a year. [p. 109]
To many back home this was a mark of Henry's biggest failure. He sued for peace and took a payment before testing his mettle in battle on the fields of Brittany, losing that and much prestige back home. But Henry achieved what he wanted, Mackie tells us. He knew he could not long stand a long war. There was little but land in France or Brittany left to take in spoils. A lasting peace was the real answer. Despite his allies' stated support, there were many indications that he could not trust for them to show up when he needed them. Early on, Henry could see the benefits of trade without the constant disruptions of war. [p. 111] Henry would work on this peace in these lands for the rest of his days.
___________________________________
quotes and pagination from J.D. Mackie: The Earlier Tudors 1485-1558 Oxford, UK 1957
No comments:
Post a Comment